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\title{Customers Ethnocentrism and Purchase Intention of Local Wheat Flour: A Study of Bakers in Anambra State, Nigeria}
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             \author[1]{Udoka  Otika}

             \author[2]{Ejiofor Happiness  Uloma}

             \author[3]{Anayo D.  Nkamnebe}

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\date{\small \em Received: 16 December 2018 Accepted: 5 January 2019 Published: 15 January 2019}

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\begin{abstract}
        


This paper focused on consumer ethnocentrism and purchase intention of home-grown wheat flour among commercial bakers in Nigeria. Despite the improved wheat flour production in Nigeria recently, the majority of wheat flour consumers (commercial bakers) still prefer the foreign-grown wheat flour to the home-grown wheat flour. This preference may not be unconnected to distrust for locally made products in terms of quality. This has raised a germane question of how does ethnocentrism could influence purchase intention of home-grown wheat flour among commercial bakers in Nigeria. In order to fill this gap in literature, this study examined the nexus among consumer ethnocentrism and purchase intention of home-grown wheat flour in Nigeria. Survey research design was adopted and the unit of analysis comprised all registered commercial bakers in Anambra state, Nigeria. Purposive sampling technique was employed and questionnaire was the research instrument. The internal consistency of the instrument was tested using Pearson moment correlation coefficient while the hypothesized research model was analysed using Multiple Linear Regression.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{*consumer ethnocentrism, *purchase intention, cetscale, *home-grown wheat flour, *nigeria.}

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\section[{I. Introduction and Background of the Study}]{I. Introduction and Background of the Study}\par
esearch on the concept of consumer ethnocentrism is increasing and it became crucial in the process of understanding consumer behavior in the global market  {\ref (Renko, et al. 2012}). Consumer ethnocentrism is a result of care and affection for own country and fear of adverse consequences because of high rates of import of foreign products that could cause serious problems for local economy development. Ethnocentrism is a sociological idea established more than a century ago by \hyperref[b39]{Sumner (1906)} as, "the view of things in which one's own group is the centre of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it". Ardono.  {\ref (1950)}, referred to it as "ethnic centeredness". \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)} defined consumer ethnocentrism as, "the belief held by consumers about the appropriateness of, indeed morality of, purchasing foreign-made products". The argument behind consumer ethnocentrism is underpinned by a preference for in-group (domestic) products  {\ref (Pentz, 2011)}. Consumer ethnocentrism is believed to be built based on domestic preference and not, a negativity towards any particular country (Josaissen, 2011). Consumer ethnocentrism has been associated with "domestic country bias" (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2004). The greater the domestic country bias the greater the likelihood that the individual will exhibit high levels of ethnocentrism. It is believed that ethnocentric consumers naturally favour their own countries and automatically reject all foreign products  {\ref (Carter, 2009)}. Consumers are thought to develop patriotic and nationalistic feelings that cause them to want to protect their domestic economies (Roger and Mason, 2014).\par
Wheat flour is made by grinding wheat grain kernels into a fine powder which makes up a key ingredient of many stable foods in the average Nigeria diet, including bread, snacks, pasta, and noodles. Nigeria, with the total consumption of 4.1 million metric tons in 2015, is one of the highest consumers of wheat in Africa (Euromonitor International, Baked Goods in Nigeria, (2015). Nigeria's wheat consumption per capita of 0.023 MT/person, however, is currently 16th among its Sub-Saharan peers  {\ref (EIBGN, 2015)}. According to International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA, 2016), Nigeria currently imports four million tons of wheat spending \$4billion on the commodity every year a figure expected to reach \$10 billion by 2030 when Nigerians are predicted to consume over 10 million metric tons of imported wheat to satisfy their growing demand for non-traditional foods like bread, pasta, and noodles.\par
While domestic production of wheat in Nigeria remains low at about 60,000 tons per year, wheat imports in Nigeria for the 2016-17 marketing year are forecast at 4.972 million tons, up from 4.410 million tons in 2015-16. According to the (USDA, 2016), Nigeria is currently the thirteenth largest importer of wheat in the world. However, as a result of the challenges in foreign exchange sourcing and rate, wheat imports declined to 3.4 MT in 2015(USDA, 2016). The introduction of Accelerated Wheat Production Program in Nigeria has helped to stimulate local wheat production and encourage usage by bakers. Local wheat production figures increased from 400,000 to 600,000 metric tons whereas the estimated total national demand for wheat stood at about 3.7 million tons per year. However, consumers have begun to pay attention to domestically grown wheat due to food preservatives used in wheat kernel prior to international transportation (Jin and \hyperref[b21]{Kim, 2011)}. \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)} developed an effective instrument for measuring the ethnocentric tendencies of consumers in deciding whether to purchase foreign or domestic products. This multi-item scale, which was named 'Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale' ('CETSCALE'), has been utilized to analyze why some consumers prefer domestically produced goods to imported goods, even when the latter are cheaper and their quality is evidently better  {\ref (Balabanis et al.2001}). According to Luque-Martinez et al.  {\ref (2000)}, the 'CETSCALE' instrument, which uses country of origin as one of its explanatory variables, would appear to be a useful tool for analysis of consumer attitudes, behaviour, and future purchase intentions with respect to foreign and domestic goods.\par
Previous studies have shown that consumers tend to use the country of origin as a cue to make decisions for the purchase of products with or without other product information \hyperref[b5]{(Balestrini and Gamble, 2006;} {\ref Schnettler et al., 2008}). In addition, several studies have reported that consumer ethnocentrism has a positive influence on consumer preference for domestic products \hyperref[b20]{(Jang, 2012;}\hyperref[b23]{Juric and Worsley, 1998)}. Few studies, if any, have examined the influence of ethnocentrism on intention to buy and use domestically grown wheat flour by Nigerian bakers Against this background, the present study is designed to contribute to the literature in this area of research by testing the reliability and validity of 'CETSCALE' and examining consumers' ethnocentric on purchase intention of domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria. 
\section[{a) Statement of the Problem}]{a) Statement of the Problem}\par
Consumer ethnocentrism refers to consumer biases in favour of domestic over foreign products \hyperref[b37]{(Shimp \& Sharma, 1987)}. The concept is postulated to be one component of a complex, multifaceted construct involving consumers, cognitive, affective, and normative orientations toward foreign-made products  {\ref (Shimp, 1984)}. The influence of consumer ethnocentrism on consumer attitudes, intentions and actions is well established. Numerous researches in international marketing found that consumer ethnocentrism has a negative effect on consumer evaluations of foreign products  {\ref (Klein, 2002;}\hyperref[b29]{Klein, Ettenson, \& Morris, 1998;}\hyperref[b37]{Shimp \& Sharma, 1987)} as well as their attitudes toward foreign products  {\ref (Sharma, Shimp, \& Shin, 1995;} {\ref Zarkada-Fraser \& Fraser, 2002)}. In addition, several papers provide evidence that the foreign brand preference is moderated by the level of consumer ethnocentrism (Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, \& Ramachander, 2000; Steenkamp,  {\ref Batra, \& Alden, 2003)}. In the era of globalization, many companies are seeking to expand their market globally. The tough competition will require the company to come out with a quality product to face the competition in the international arena. In some countries, domestic consumers are more ethnocentric and prefer local products as compared to imported products, as to show their love to the country. But in some instances the consumer might forgo their ethnocentrism to get the best value for their money. The availability of choice might change the consumers mind. However, despite the improved wheat production in Nigeria, most bakers are still purchasing foreign wheat flour, it has not been ascertained what influence their decision. Hence, a major question arises, how ethnocentrism affects purchase intention of domestically grown wheat flour among bakers in Nigeria? 
\section[{b) Objectives of the Study}]{b) Objectives of the Study}\par
The main objective of this study is to examine the relationship between ethnocentrism and buying intention of domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study are: 1. To identify whether ethnocentric tendencies of respondents have impact on their purchase intentions 2. To examine reliability and validity of Cetscale, used in measuring ethnocentric tendencies of consumers? c) Research Hypotheses Ho 1 : Ethnocentrism has no significant impact on bakers buying intention of domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria.\par
Ho 2 : Cetscale has no significant impact on ethnocentric tendencies of bakers buying intention of domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria. 
\section[{d) Scope of the Study}]{d) Scope of the Study}\par
The study focuses on consumer ethnocentrism and how it influence purchase intention in Anambra state. The independent variable is consumer ethnocentrism and the dependent variable is purchase intention. The independent variable; consumer ethnocentrism will be measured with' Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale' ('CETSCALE') developed by \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)}. The study is domicile on consumer behavior as a concept in marketing literature. As this study relates to the activities of bakers in Anambra state, only registered bakers will be studied, non-registered bakers will not be included in the study. The study will cover the bakery industry in Anambra State. The choice of the Anambra State is that previous researchers have not done much using consumer ethnocentrism predict the baker's intention to purchase domestically grown wheat flour. The study is a cross-sectional study and will cover the period from October to April, 2018. 
\section[{e) Significance of the Study}]{e) Significance of the Study}\par
The significance of this study is as follows: First, it provides the understanding of the determinant of domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria from baker's behaviour perspective. The study will provide useful information for Nigerian agricultural policy makers, local wheat farmers and flour millers in Nigeria as well as marketing companies for foreign brands to understand their customers' perception about local and foreign wheat. The study will also be useful for developing marketing strategies and government trade policies. Domestic products will be preferred to foreign ones if they attract more ethnocentric customers. The study will also be useful to the bakers to understand what influence them to purchase domestically grown wheat flour in Nigeria. The academicians are not left out because the study will be the bases for further study. The study will be a source of information provider to enable the government to take a rightful decision on how to support farmers to produce wheat that will be sufficient for bakers. The study will give step for academicians to study more on the moderating and mediating roles of the variables. 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{Review of Related Literature}]{Review of Related Literature} 
\section[{Conceptual Framework a) The Concept of Consumer Ethnocentrism}]{Conceptual Framework a) The Concept of Consumer Ethnocentrism}\par
The concept of consumer ethnocentrism has been derived from the general concept of ethnocentrism, which was first introduced in 1906 by sociologist William Sumner. In the early eighties, \hyperref[b11]{Crawford and Lamb (1981)} showed that buying foreign products can cause high emotional involvement especially when it comes to national security or loss of jobs. That argument offered the concept of ethnocentrism beyond psychological and social frameworks, and was recognized in the field of marketing as one of the dynamic factors in consumer purchasing choices. Consumer ethnocentrism is defined as "the beliefs held by consumers about the appropriateness, indeed morality of purchasing foreignmade product and the loyalty of consumers to the products manufactured in their home country." \hyperref[b37]{(Shimp and Sharma, 1987)}. Consumer ethnocentrism has a direct and negative impact on consumers' purchase intention towards foreign products. These imply that the high ethnocentric tendencies lead to unfavourable attitude towards lower purchase intentions for foreign products.\par
According to \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)}, consumers refuse to buy foreign products because they consider that they are harmful to the national economy and cause unemployment. \hyperref[b18]{Herche (1992)} found that consumer ethnocentrism can predict consumers' preferences to buy domestically produced goods instead of foreign and that the ethnocentric tendencies are better predictors of purchase behaviour than demographic or marketing mix variables. The construct of consumers' ethnocentrism relies on the presumption that the consumers' patriotic emotions will have significant effects on attitudes and purchase intentions. Therefore,  {\ref Shoham and Brene?i? (2003)} reported that consumer ethnocentrism had significant impact on consumers' intentions to purchase domestically produced goods. Many other studies have examined the impact of consumer ethnocentric tendencies on purchase intentions. \hyperref[b48]{(Yelkur, 2006}  
\section[{b) Measuring Consumer Ethnocentrism}]{b) Measuring Consumer Ethnocentrism}\par
Early attempts to develop a scale for measuring consumer ethnocentrism, which included the so-called 'E-scale'  {\ref (Adorno et al.1950}) and other adaptations of measures that had originally been developed for measuring 'generic' sociological ethnocentrism \hyperref[b8]{(Chang and Ritter 1976;} {\ref Warr et al.1967)}, turned out to be inappropriate for measuring the specific construct of consumer ethnocentrism \hyperref[b37]{(Shimp and Sharma 1987;}\hyperref[b30]{Luque-Martinez et al. 2000)}. More recently, \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)} developed the Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale' ('CETSCALE'). Although other scales have subsequently been suggested and tested, 'CETSCALE' has become the most commonly used instrument for measuring consumer ethnocentrism  {\ref (Chryssochoidis et al.2007}). The scale is comprised of 17 items that are designed to measure consumers' evaluations and behavioural tendencies when comparing domestically produced goods with imported products \hyperref[b19]{(Hult and Keillor 1994)}. \hyperref[b32]{Netemeyer et al. (1991)} reported strong support for the psychometric properties (unidimensionality and internal consistency) and nomological validity of the scale when they tested it in samples of consumers across four developed economies (USA, France, Japan, and Germany). This Year 2019 ( ) scale has been widely used to measure consumer ethnocentrism tendencies in many studies within developed and in the developing countries (Luque-Martinez, et al., 2000; \hyperref[b24]{Kaynak, Kara, 2002;} {\ref Chryssochoidis etal., 2007;}\hyperref[b49]{Yeong et al., 2007}\hyperref[b45]{, Wong et al., 2008} {\ref , Vassella, 2011;} {\ref Ranjbarian,2011} {\ref Ranjbarian, , 2011))}. However, according to \hyperref[b24]{Kaynak and Kara (2002)}, the validity of 'CETSCALE' has not yet been fully established in all relevant settings; in particular, few validation studies have involved developing economies in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Middle East. 
\section[{c) Consumer Purchase Intention}]{c) Consumer Purchase Intention}\par
Howard \& Sheth, (1967) states that purchase intention is the pre-step that guides clients to actual purchase actions, and is understood as intention to buy products. According to Keller (2001), consumers' buying decision is very complex. Purchase behaviour is an important key point for consumers during considering and evaluating of certain product. Moreover, purchase intention is a significant factor use in predicting purchasing process  {\ref (Ghosh, 1990)}. When the consumers decide to purchase the product in certain store, they will be driven by their intention. According to Fishbein and Azjen (1975), intentions has four elements, the behaviour which is intended to perform, the target object at which the behaviour is directed, the situation in which the behaviour is to be performed and the time at which the behaviour is to be performed. Moreover, the inherent intentions of the beholder (positive or negative) are most likely to determine their consequent behaviours (positive or negative) towards the object.\par
The consumers' purchase intentions are therefore defined as the likeliness of buying or rejecting any commodity by the consumers (Whitlar, 1993). As intentions are based on the perceptions the consumers behold for the product or services at disposal, these intentions are influenced by a number of factors. Ness. (2010), in his study on identifying the consumer purchase intentions in six European countries found similar results in all countries regarding the significant effect of consumers' perceived value for the product on their behavioural intention to buy it. Moreover, they found mediating effect of satisfaction in this relationship. Study in Taiwan by Chen (2007) showed that consumers' attitudes and purchase intentions in relation to the organic food are influenced by four main factors of positive attitude, positive subjective norm, behavioural control and perceived difficulty. The first three factors play positive role in determining the purchase intentions of the consumers, however, perceived difficulty is negatively related to the purchase intentions. 
\section[{d) Consumer Ethnocentrism and Purchase Intention}]{d) Consumer Ethnocentrism and Purchase Intention}\par
In addition to the proposed relationships between various antecedents and consumer ethnocentrism, it is suggested that there is a relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and purchase of domestically produced goods. \hyperref[b29]{Klein(1998)} reported that ethnocentric consumers prefer domestically produced goods because they believe that products from their own country are the best. \hyperref[b18]{Herche (1992)} found that consumer ethnocentrism can predict consumers' preferences to buy domestically produced goods as opposed to foreign products; indeed, he reported that ethnocentric tendencies are better predictors of import purchase behaviour than demographic and marketing mix variables. Durvasula (1997) demonstrated that higher levels of consumer ethnocentricity are associated with more positive beliefs about the virtues of domestically produced goods and stronger attitudes about the importance of buying such products. Shohamand Bren ?i? (2003) reported that consumer ethnocentrism had a significant impact on consumers' intentions to purchase domestically produced goods. Taken together, the above findings suggest that a positive link exists between consumer ethnocentrism and intention to purchase domestically produced goods.\par
Besides, the finding of Okechuku (1994) demonstrates that consumers in developed countries prefer their own domestic goods first. The more customers prefer domestic goods, the less positive they feel about foreign products. In addition, ethnocentric consumers believe that the purchase of imported products can hurt the domestic enterprises and cause unemployment as well as be unpatriotic \hyperref[b32]{(Netemeyer, 1991;}\hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma, 1987)}. As a result, ethnocentrism gives consumers feelings of belonging and guidelines for buying behaviour, which can be acceptable to a group and contribute to various evaluations of foreign and domestic goods. Several studies also have the same conclusion that customers tend to evaluate domestic products more favourably than foreign ones. (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2011; Juric and Worsley, 1998). However, in the recent study, \hyperref[b3]{Balabanis (2017)} suggest that ethnocentrism has no essential effect on the purchase intention of convenience or low-cost products. 
\section[{e) Theoretical Framework i. Theory of Planned Behaviour}]{e) Theoretical Framework i. Theory of Planned Behaviour}\par
The theory of planned behaviour is an extension of the theory of reason action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). The TPB extended the TRA by adding the perceived behavioural control (PBC) because the TRA has difficulty in explaining behaviours in which a person does not have volitional control over it. The present study applied TPB instead of TRA to predict purchase intention. This is because whether to purchase or not is not entirely under a person's volitional control. There are some control factors that may affect individual's purchase intention such as quality, time and money constraint, availability of the product and so on. Hence, it is deemed to be necessary to examine beyond the attitude and subjective norm construct in the TRA but to explore further the control factor that possibly influence individual's purchase intention. The TPB model posits that intention to perform a given behaviour is the immediate antecedent of that behaviour (Ajzen 2002). Behavioural intention refers to the amount of effort a person exerts to engage in behaviour. It captures the motivation factors necessary to perform a particular behaviour (Courneya, Bobick and Schinke 1999). That is, the more a person intends to carry out the intended behaviour, the more likely he or she would do so (Armitage and Conner 1999). Intention is determined by three conceptually independent variables labelled attitude, subjective norms and PBC.\par
Generally, the more favourable the attitude and subjective norm, and the greater the perceived behavioural control, the stronger should be the individual's intention to perform a particular behaviour (Ajzen 2002).According to Ajzen (1991), attitude toward behaviour is the person's favourable or unfavourable feeling of performing that behaviour and is determined by behavioural beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour and evaluation of the outcome. Subjective norm refers to the individual's perceptions of social pressure in performing or not performing a given behaviour and is determined by normative beliefs which assess the social pressures on the individual about a particular behaviour. Finally, PBC is thought to be a function of control beliefs about the perceived ease or difficulty of carrying out the intended behaviour and may have both direct and indirect effects on behaviour.\par
For the purposes of this study the researchers adopt the theory of planned behaviour because it links to what influence baker intention to purchase domestically grown wheat flour. The theory has been adopted by numerous researchers'  {\ref (}   {\ref 2017}) studied the effects of country of origin and product features on customer purchase intention. The study investigated the drivers of purchase intention for imported powdered milk by using the partial least squares-structural equation model approach to analyse a data survey of 369 customers in Vietnam. The results indicate that product attitude has the strongest positively effect on purchase intention; meanwhile, the country of origin has indirectly relationship to the purchase intention via product features. Specifically, group conformity also has significant relationship with purchase intention. Lastly, ethnocentrism has a negative effect on product quality and purchase intention. They recommend that the paper be conducted a qualitative study to support the empirical results.\par
Kamwendo, Corbishley, and Mason (2014) in their study South African consumer ethnocentrism and attitudes towards foreign convenience products. The study looks into the concept of consumer ethnocentrism and its relationship with product selection and investigates the relationships between consumer ethnocentrism and South African consumers' attitudes towards foreign convenience products. The aim of the study was to determine the extent to which consumer ethnocentrism affects consumer behaviour among South African consumers. Through the use of the CETSCALE questionnaire, an analysis of the levels of consumer ethnocentrism displayed by consumers of different demographic characteristics was conducted. A research model highlighting the antecedents to consumer ethnocentrism was developed and tested using an Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) test. The study was in the form of a descriptive survey. 500 questionnaires are distributed, with 476 useable questionnaires being obtained. SPSS 21.0 is used to analyze the data. Non parametric tests are used as the data was not normally distributed using a Kolmogorov Smirnov test. The research hypotheses were tested using a nonparametric Chi-square test. The Pearson chisquare test was used to test for the existence of variances within the responses provided by the respondents to individual question. The study reveals that only ethnicity has a significant relationship with consumer ethnocentrism. Ethnocentric tendencies are the strongest among Black South Africans. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are presented with the provision of suggestions regarding future research.\par
Suska Riau (2016) wrote on the consumer ethnocentrism and attitude towards domestic product in pekanbaruoleh. The purpose of the research was to discover high school student ethnocentrism and their attitude toward domestic product. Base on consumer ethnocentrism questionnaire (CETSCALE) developed by \hyperref[b37]{Shimp and Sharma (1987)}, 17questions were given to the student from one private high school in Pekanbaru City, Riau Province. Moreover, question about their attitude, preference, and the reason to choose domestic product also being questioned. About 118 students participated in this study. The data collected was analysed through qualitative and quantitative method. The result showed that the study provides support for the CETSCALE's reliability and validity. Mean score on the CETSCALE was 57.20, which is indicating a moderate level. From the question about country of origin, approximately 60.2\% respondents pay attention to the product country of origin. In relation to the price, 55.1\% would buy the domestic product if the price between the domestic and foreign product is the same. On the other situation 71.2\% respondent would buy the domestic product if the price is cheaper, contrary to only 23.7 \% respondent that keep buying domestic product even the price is higher. It is important to note that even they have high ethnocentrism score, not all of them willing to buy domestic product when the price is higher. We also gave them opened question asking about what kind of product and services they prefer domestic made. Nearly 50\% mentioned clothes or dress and many respondents refer to specific kind of clothes or motive such as Batik. Food is chosen by at least 66\% respondent as domestic product they prefer. The most reasons are the cheap prices, same quality, delicious taste for food, and proud to consume the domestic product. We may conclude that respondent were ethnocentrism at certain product but still considering the price to make a buying decision.\par
Nik-Mat, Abd-Ghani, and Al-Ekam (2015) studied the direct drivers of ethnocentric consumer, intention and actual purchasing behaviour in Malaysia. The study attempts to determine the drivers of actual purchasing behaviour, intention to purchase domestic products and ethnocentrism. The study employs the cross-sectional primary data, self-administered on household, selected using stratified random sampling in four Malaysian regions. A nine factor driver of actual domestic purchasing behaviour (culture openness, conservatism, collectivism, patriotism, control belief, interest in foreign travel, attitude, ethnocentrism and intention) were measured utilizing 60 items, using 7point Likertscale.From 1000 questionnaires distributed, a sample of 486 were returned representing 48.6 percent response rate. From the fit generated structural model (SEM analysis), it was found that the drivers of actual purchase behaviour are collectivism, cultural openness and patriotism; the drivers of intention to purchase domestic product are attitude, control belief, collectivism and conservatism; and drivers of ethnocentrism are cultural openness, control belief, foreign travel and patriotism. It also shows that Malaysian consumers scored high in ethnocentrism and patriotism.\par
Asshidin,  {\ref Abidina and Borhanb(2016)} in their study perceived quality and emotional value that influence consumer's purchase intention towards American and local products. The main purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of perceived quality and emotional value that influence consumer's purchase intention towards American and local products. The contribution of the study was crucial to the growing body of international marketing to explain the purchase intention on United States products on top of others in the context of Malaysian consumers. In other words, the research provides useful information on how the local Malaysian consumers perceive foreign products. A total of 270 questionnaires we redistributed to students in higher learning institutions who were chosen randomly among the total population. Sample is mixed between postgraduate and undergraduate students and does not include international students; as the study is aimed at comparing American products and local products. Data were then analyzed using descriptive, reliability and correlation analysis. The reliability result of this study shows that the instruments that have been used in for measuring various variables in this study were reliable. Meanwhile, for correlation, the result shows moderate significant relationship between perceived quality and emotional value towards purchase intention. 
\section[{III.}]{III.} 
\section[{Research Methodology a) Research Design}]{Research Methodology a) Research Design}\par
A research design describes the procedures for conducting the study, including when, from whom, and under what conditions the data will be obtained and analysed for required information. The study will use descriptive research design with the aid of survey method in obtaining the needed data. Survey research design was chosen because the sampled elements and the variables that are being studied are simply being observed as they are without making any attempt to control and manipulate them. Besides, the survey research design also helps to evaluate the implications and interrelationship of the dependent and independent variables of the study \hyperref[b9]{(Chinedu, 2013)}. 
\section[{b) Source of Data}]{b) Source of Data}\par
According to Valos and Bednall, (2010), they see source of data as data gathered and assembled for a research project at hand. Data needed for this study was collected from the primary sources. The data for this study were collected through survey to get an indepth understanding on how ethnocentrism and product quality influence baker's intention to purchase local wheat flour. Survey involves using pretested questionnaire. The data will be measured using 5 point likert rating scale. 
\section[{c) Population of the Study and Sample Size}]{c) Population of the Study and Sample Size}\par
The population of the study comprise all the registered bakers in Anambra state. According to the Association of Registered Bakers in Anambra State (2017), the total number of registered bakers is 210. The population was a finite one because the association provided the exact number of bakers in the area. But since the population of the study is finite and few the researchers decided to study the whole population. 
\section[{d) Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments i. Validity of Research Instruments}]{d) Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments i. Validity of Research Instruments}\par
Validity refers to the degree to which a research instrument measures what it attempts to measure that is, the ability of scale or instrument to measure what it is required to measure (Zikmund 2003) and the integrity in which constructs are generated (Bryman 2003). More technically, a valid measure of a concept is one that is (1) closely related to other apparently valid measures;\par
(2) closely related to the known or supposed correlates of that concept; and (3) not related to measures of unrelated concepts  {\ref (Emaikwu, 2011)}. In this study, efforts will be made to ensure that the instruments that will be used will be valid enough to measure what it supposes to measure. The research instrument will be given to experts to ensure that it is valid enough to measure what it ought to measure.\par
ii. Reliability of Research Instruments Reliability refers to the ability of a research instrument to produce consistent results  {\ref (Emaikwu, 2011)}. It also means that a measurement procedure yields consistent or equivalent scores when the phenomenon being measured is not changing \hyperref[b46]{(Yahya, 2014)}. The test-retest method was employed to establish the internal consistency. This involved repeated administration of the same questionnaire. Thus the same questionnaire was administered twice to same respondents at interval of two weeks. The reliability was established by assessing the internal consistency of the items representing each construct, using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient as the statistical tool, the result gave a reliability index of (0.96) indicating a high degree of consistency. 
\section[{e) Research instrument}]{e) Research instrument}\par
The instrument of quantitative research was a highly structured questionnaire with five-point Likert type of scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) where respondents express their degree of agreement or no agreement for the statements. The mentioned scale will be theoretically considered as the best solution for questionnaires because it most accurately reflects the attitude of the individual respondents.  {\ref (Zelenika, 2000)}. The first part of the questionnaire will summarize the basic demographic characteristics, including age, sex, number of years as a baker, education qualification and marital status. The second part of questionnaire will consist of Cetscale with a total of 17 statements that will define the degree or intensity of ethnocentric tendencies of Nigerian bakers. 
\section[{f) Method of Data Analysis}]{f) Method of Data Analysis}\par
Various analytical tools were used to analyse the data from the respondents. In the study, the descriptive statistics such as frequency counts with simple percentage were used to analyse bio-data of the respondents and the research questions.\par
Factor Analysis was used to decompose the 17 items under the Cetscale into components and to the test the validation of the scale. Multiple linear regression was used to test the association/relationship between the factors/components and purchase intentions. All analyses were done through the application of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 23).\par
IV. 
\section[{Data Analysis}]{Data Analysis}\par
The sample size for this study is 210 registered Bakers in Anambra State. Thus 210 copies of questionnaire were distributed to the bakers out of which 180 copies were returned as duly filled and usable. This represents a response rate of approximately 85.7 per cent which is very high for a study of this nature. This high response rate was informed by the fact the researcher went round to distribute the questionnaire by herself. Table \hyperref[tab_1]{1} contain information on the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The first result in the Factor analysis is the descriptive statistics which shows that all the values for the items are well above 2.5 thresholds since the items were measured on a Five-point Likert. The standard deviations vary with some above one and some below one. Compared with the mean indicated that respondents are in agreement with the items on the scale.\par
The 17 item consumer ethnocentrism scale was subjected to principal component analysis using the SPSS version 23. Before performing the principal component analysis, the suitability of the data for factor analysis was ascertained. Inspection of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of many coefficients of 0.3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was 0.714, well above the recommended threshold of 0.6; while the Bartlett's Test of Sphericity has a Chi Square value that is highly statistically significant at 0.000 level of significance, thus supporting the factorability of the component matrix. This means that the principal component analysis (PCA) is reliable and dependable. Next is the list of communalities which show that all the seven items load very well up to 0.5 and above showing that no item need to eliminated. All the items merit further analysis.\par
Principal components analysis revealed the presence of four components with eigenvalues exceeding 1, explain 38.181\%, 12.128\%, 8.476\%, and 7.377\% of the variance respectively. An inspection of the scree plot showed a clear break in the third component. As shown under Total variance extracted above, the last column, which the Rotation Sum of Squared Loadings show that while components 1, 2, and 4 load above 4, the third component just loaded less than 2 showing that this component cannot be retained. The 3 retained components explain 57.678\% of variance. The components extracted show correlations coefficients of 0.226; 0.161; 0.337 and 0.306 which are not very high to convey collinearity. To further support this, Oblimin rotation was performed which produced the pattern matrix and the structure matrix which combined in one table for ease of comparison. Pattern matrix is peculiar to Oblimin rotation and this like the structure matrix shows that four items load on component one, five items load on component two, while seven components load on component four. Only two items load on component three. The components and the items loadings on them are shown in the table below.\par
with foreign equivalents. The finance border on sustainability of the country and its systems while patriotism is on me first. Based on this local manufacturers should have the consumers in mind in their production activities. Government should also try to create a conducive environment for indigenous manufacturers. 
\section[{Global Journal of Management and Business Research}]{Global Journal of Management and Business Research}\par
Volume XIX Issue VI Version I Year 2019 ( )\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}}\end{figure}
  \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.1609597924773022\textwidth}P{0.1863164721141375\textwidth}P{0.3373540856031128\textwidth}P{0.02094682230869001\textwidth}P{0.02094682230869001\textwidth}P{0.023151750972762647\textwidth}P{0.10032425421530479\textwidth}}
\multicolumn{6}{l}{Customers Ethnocentrism and Purchase Intention of Local Wheat Flour: A Study of Bakers in Anambra}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{State, Nigeria}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Year 2019\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Volume XIX Issue VI Version I\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep )\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep E\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep (\\
Sex: Age bracket: No. years as a Baker:\tabcellsep Male Female Total 20-30 years 31-40 years 41-50 years above 51 years Total 5-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years above 21 years Total\tabcellsep \multicolumn{4}{l}{Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 106 58.9 58.9 58.9 74 41.1 41.1 100.0 180 100.0 100.0 39 21.7 21.7 21.7 52 28.9 28.9 50.6 64 35.6 35.6 86.1 25 13.9 13.9 100.0 180 100.0 100.0 47 26.1 26.1 26.1 43 23.9 23.9 50.0 59 32.8 32.8 82.8 31 17.2 17.2 100.0 180 100.0 100.0}\tabcellsep Global Journal of Management and Business Research\\
\tabcellsep PLSC\tabcellsep 24\tabcellsep 13.3\tabcellsep 13.3\tabcellsep 13.3\\
\tabcellsep O'Level\tabcellsep 35\tabcellsep 19.4\tabcellsep 19.4\tabcellsep 32.8\\
Education:\tabcellsep OND/NCE\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 10.0\tabcellsep 10.0\tabcellsep 42.8\\
\tabcellsep HND/BSc\tabcellsep 90\tabcellsep 50.0\tabcellsep 50.0\tabcellsep 92.8\\
\tabcellsep Post -Graduate\tabcellsep 13\tabcellsep 7.2\tabcellsep 7.2\tabcellsep 100.0\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.2763705103969754\textwidth}P{0.3068998109640832\textwidth}P{0.19442344045368617\textwidth}P{0.0723062381852552\textwidth}}
Mean\tabcellsep Std. Deviation\tabcellsep Analysis N\tabcellsep Missing N\\
4.49\tabcellsep .664\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.14\tabcellsep 1.025\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.32\tabcellsep 1.087\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.26\tabcellsep .934\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
3.49\tabcellsep 1.343\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
3.82\tabcellsep 1.318\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.15\tabcellsep 1.033\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.28\tabcellsep .892\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.20\tabcellsep .815\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.23\tabcellsep .996\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.00\tabcellsep .945\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
3.82\tabcellsep 1.187\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.31\tabcellsep .872\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
3.59\tabcellsep 1.204\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.52\tabcellsep .887\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.27\tabcellsep .830\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
4.34\tabcellsep .935\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep 0\\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{KMO and Bartlett's Test}\tabcellsep \\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.}\tabcellsep .714\\
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Approx. Chi-Square}\tabcellsep 1866.792\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Df\tabcellsep 136\\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Sig.}\tabcellsep .000\\
\tabcellsep Communalities\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep Initial\tabcellsep Extraction\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .589\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .812\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .572\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .448\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .736\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .681\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .697\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .682\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .713\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .517\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .566\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep 1.000\tabcellsep .673\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{Customers Ethnocentrism and Purchase Intention of Local Wheat Flour: A Study of Bakers in Anambra State, Nigeria} 			\footnote{© 2019 Global Journals} 		 		\backmatter  			 
\subsection[{Components}]{Components} 
\subsection[{Items loading}]{Items loading}\par
Items Name One component that has only 2 items was dropped and only 3 components retained. The 17 ethnocentrism scale used in this study clustered around the select 3 components which centre on finance and survival, cost and availability, and patriotism. This result is in line with the study of (Jang, 2012; Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2011; Juric and Worsley, 1998) earlier cited in the work.\par
V. 
\subsection[{Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation}]{Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation}\par
The main objective of this study is to validate ethnocentrism scale in the local wheat flour in Nigeria. Based on this, the 17 item Cetscale was used in the questionnaire to collect data from bakers and secondary users of locally processed wheat flour. The data collected were subjected to Factor Analysis and four components were extracted. All the items loaded very well showing that none need to be eliminated. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was 0.714, well above the recommended threshold of 0.6; while the Bartlett's Test of Sphericity has a Chi Square value that is highly statistically significant at 0.000 level of significance, thus supporting the factorability of the component matrix. This means that the principal component analysis (PCA) is reliable and dependable. Principal components analysis revealed the presence of four components with eigenvalues exceeding 1, explain 38.181\%, 12.128\%, 8.476\%, and 7.377\% of the variance respectively. An inspection of the scree plot showed a clear break in the third component. As shown under Total variance extracted above, the last column, which the Rotation Sum of Squared Loadings show that while components 1, 2, and 4 load above 4, the third component just loaded less than 2 showing that this component cannot be retained. The 3 retained components explain 57.678\% of variance.\par
Based on the analysis, we conclude that the consumer ethnocentrism (Cetscale) can be employed in the local wheat processing to determine and predict consumer purchase intentions for the wheat flour. The factors were used to run regression to ascertain their effect on purchase intention of the locally processed wheat and the result show that cost and availability is the major determinant of purchase intention. Finance and sustainability is marginally significant while patriotism is not significant at all.\par
The cetscale used in this study conduced into 3 acceptable components: Finance, cost and availability, and patriotism. Based on this, it is expected that local producers should make their products readily available and try to manage the cost of production to be in line			 			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
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\end{bibitemlist}
 			 		 	 
\end{document}
