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\title{Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment: A Cross-Sectional Study with Reference to Teachers in Technical \& Management Institute}
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             \author[1]{Dr. Martin Onsiro  Ronald}

             \author[2]{Katwire  Aisha}

             \affil[1]{  Kampala International University, Dar es Salaam  Constituent College, Tanzania}

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\date{\small \em Received: 7 December 2012 Accepted: 2 January 2013 Published: 15 January 2013}

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\begin{abstract}
        


In most of the organizations the human resource counselors, professionals and managers are concerned about the impact of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, many academic institutions have very little understanding of how job satisfaction affects employee?s turnover, productivity and organization's performance. Therefore it is essential to understand the causes, symptoms and the effect it has. The main objective of the present paper is to study the job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment of faculty members in Technical and Management Institutes with reference to different institutes in Dar es Salaam region. For this purpose the data was collected through questionnaire under convenience random sampling of Management and Technical faculty members. The analysis has been done using different Statistical tools with the help of SPSS. The findings reveal and demonstrate that dissatisfaction does exist in the academic organizations/institutions, which eventually results to decrease of organizational commitment. Thus, the managers of various organizations should come up with various interventions to manage the dissatisfaction among the faculty members.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{job satisfaction, organizational commitment, management, }

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
ccording to experts, while most managers believe employees leave due to money issues, in actuality it is an employee's relationship with their supervisor that has the greatest impact on whether they stay or go, because a supervisor has control over the CORE elements that create job satisfaction-compensation, opportunity, recognition and environment. And that is why it is important to hold supervisors accountable for retaining a thriving workforce \hyperref[b8]{(Deborah, 2007)}. The management of people at work is an integral part of the management process. To understand the critical importance of people in the organization is to recognize that the human element and the organization are synonymous. A well-managed organization usually sees an average worker as the root source of quality and productivity gains. Such organizations do not look to capital investment, but to employees, as the fundamental source of improvement. An Organization is effective to the degree to which it achieves its goals. An effective organization will make sure that there is a spirit of cooperation and sense of commitment and satisfaction within the sphere of its influence. \hyperref[b20]{(Luthans, 1998)}.\par
Job satisfaction is the most important issue for any organization because if its employees are satisfied it is sure that the organization will flourish. It also increases the organizational commitment and reduces the flow of employees, as it is in the interest of an organization to retain employees and minimize turnover. However, many educational institutions have little understanding of how to satisfy their employees and how these employee satisfaction levels influence their intent to leave their positions. In fact, because of this limited understanding, institutional efforts towards employee satisfaction can sometimes create more dissonance than cohesion between employees and management, leading to excessive employee turnover. Organizational commitment has been described as consisting of two constructs affective and continuance  {\ref (Allen \& Meyer, 1990)}.\par
The definition of job satisfaction has visibly evolved through the decades, but most versions share the belief that job satisfaction is a work related positive affective reaction. There seems to be less consistency when talking about the causes of job satisfaction. Wexley and Yukl (1984) stated that job satisfaction is influenced by many factors, including personal traits and characteristics of the job.\par
To better understand the employee and job characteristics and their relationship to job satisfaction, various theories have emerged and provided the vital framework for future job satisfaction studies. Early traditional theories suggested that a single bipolar continuum, with satisfaction on one end and dissatisfaction on the other, could be used to conceptualize job satisfaction. Later revisions of the theory included a two continuum model that placed job satisfaction on the first scale and job dissatisfaction on the second  {\ref (Brown, 1998)}. Later theories focused more on the presence or absence of certain intrinsic and extrinsic job factors that could determine one's satisfaction level. Intrinsic factors are based on personal perceptions and internal feelings, and include factors such as recognition, advancement, and responsibility. These factors have been strongly linked to job satisfaction according to O'Driscoll and Randall  {\ref (1999)}.\par
Extrinsic factors are external job related variables that would include salary, supervision, and working conditions. These extrinsic factors have also been found to have a significant influence on job satisfaction levels according to Martin and Schinke (1998).\par
Job satisfaction is, therefore, seen by some people to be a function of what is expected and what is received. Thus if one expects little and gets little, one will be satisfied. At the same time, if one expects a lot and gets a lot, one will be satisfied. However, if one expects a lot and gets little, one will be dissatisfied. This brings different views and perception as far as gender is concern whereby the basic arguments are that although women receive less from their jobs than men do, they have lower expectations and hence feel just as satisfied as men  {\ref (Kinman, 1998)}.\par
Organizational commitment is the relative strength of an employee's attachment or involvement with the organization where he or she is employed, for example; daily business, technical \& management institutes' Organizational commitment is important because committed employees are less likely to leave for another lob and are more likely to perform at higher levels. However, Meyer and Allen (1994) state that organizational commitment is "a psychological state that;\par
? Characterizes the employee's relationships with the organization, and ? Have implications for the decision to continue membership in the organization.\par
Organizational commitment could also be defined as employees' strong belief in and acceptance of an organization's goals and values, effort on behalf of the organization to reach these goals and objectives and strong desire to maintain membership in the organization \hyperref[b14]{(Hunt and} {\ref Morgan, 1994:1568)}. In other words, organizational commitment points to the attitudes of employees concerning commitment towards the organizations they work for  {\ref (Moorhead and Griffin, 1995:64-65;} {\ref Northcraft and Neale, 1990: 465)}. According to Luthans (1992:124), organizational commitment is directly related to the desire to maintain membership in the organization, the willingness of employees to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization and a strong belief in and acceptance of an organization's goals and values. a) Objectives i. Examine the level of job satisfaction among employees in an organization ii. Identify the factors responsible for job satisfaction in an organization. iii. Establish the relationship between job satisfaction and organization commitment.\par
II. 
\section[{Literature Review}]{Literature Review}\par
Other researchers use similar definitions of job satisfaction that refer to an employee's attachment, goal congruency, identification, loyalty and allegiance to their organization. On the other hand Porter and his colleagues defined commitment as "Attachment as the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization" (Mowday, Steers, \& Porter, 1979).\par
Job satisfaction is so important in that its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment  {\ref (Levinson, 1997} {\ref , Moser, 1997)}. Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein and Hellmann, 1997; Jamal, 1997). Sometimes workers may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. At the other times the movement is from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture. This later is common in countries grappling with dwindling economy and its concomitant such as poor conditions of service and late payment of salaries \hyperref[b26]{(Nwagwu, 1997)}. In such countries, people tend to migrate to better and consistently paying jobs  {\ref (Fafunwa, 1971}). Explaining its nature some researcher (e.g. Armentor, Forsyth, 1995, Flanegan, Johnson and Berret, 1996; Kadushin, and Kulys, 1995) tend to agree that job satisfaction is essentially controlled by factors described in \hyperref[b0]{Adeyemo's (2000)} perspectives as external to the worker. From this viewpoint satisfaction on a job might be motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers peculiar needs are met. Working conditions that are similar to local and international standard (Osagbemi, 2000), and extent to which they resemble work conditions of other professions in the locality. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay satisfaction, promotion opportunities, and task clarity \hyperref[b3]{(Bolarin, 1993}; Gemenxhenandez, Max, Kosier, Paradiso and Robinson, 1997).\par
Measuring job satisfaction is difficult, for it is an abstract personal cognition that exists only in an individual's mind. To measure job satisfaction, one must have a conceptual understanding of the construct in order to decide which indirect factors to measure. Since there is no single agreed upon definition of job satisfaction, and no widely accepted theory to explain it, it is no surprise that there is also no general consensus on the best way to measure job satisfaction (Wanous \& Lawler, 1972). Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982, p.27), define the affective organizational commitment as "a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values; a Willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; and a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization." The counterpart to affective organizational commitment is continual organizational commitment, which considers the idea that individuals do not leave a company for fear of losing their benefits, taking a pay cut, and not being able to find another job (Murray, Gregoire, \& Downey, 1991). Job satisfaction has been recognized as a component of organizational commitment  {\ref (Kovach, 1977)}. It is suggested that job satisfaction is a state of pleasure gained from applying one's values to a job  {\ref (Locke, 1969)}. Spector (1997, p.2) believes that job satisfaction "can be considered as a global feeling about the job or as a related constellation of attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job." Researchers have found that job satisfaction is correlated with turnover but not to the extent that a predictive model can be created.  {\ref (Kraut, 1975;} {\ref Mobley, 1982;} {\ref Mobley Griffeth, Hand, \& Meglino, 1979)}.\par
Previous studies related to job satisfaction show that there are certain factors which affect the level of job satisfaction of the employees. The teachers in the modern era are considered as the employees of the institutions still there is considerable difference in the nature of the work of the teachers which may cause the difference in level of satisfaction from their jobs, including salary, work environment, gender, age, family life, social status, passion towards teaching etc. Different scholars have shown previously that female are more dissatisfied with their jobs while some studies related to the psychology of the school teachers show that female teachers are more satisfied with jobs as compared to their counterpart (Travis G. Worrell May, 2004 Blacksburg, Virginia). Charles Hickson, Titus 0shagbemi, Bradford: 1999. Increasing the productivity of the teachers is very essential from the societal point of view as they are the shapes of the future professionals whether technical or management. This study will help us give an insight in to the effect of different factors on the job satisfaction.\par
Other researchers (e.g. MacDonald, 1996; O'Toole, 1980) argue in favour of the control of job satisfaction by factors intrinsic to the workers. Their arguments are based on the idea that workers deliberately decide to find satisfaction in their jobs and perceive them as worthwhile. Studies of job satisfaction and academicians seem to consistently show there is a relationship between professional status and the job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions that are of good standing in society. Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Different studies conducted show that older workers are more satisfied  {\ref (Davis, 1988:100)}.  found a meaningful relationship between the age and job satisfaction;  {\ref Hamshari (1983)}  
\section[{Importance of the Study}]{Importance of the Study}\par
An educational institution is as good as the faculty members of the institution. So this study will help us understand the causes which create loyalty among faculty members towards their institutions and can help us find the reason as to why good faculty members leave the institution and will focus on the role of the institutional policies and their implementation in the context of the organizational commitment of the faculty members or the teachers.\par
In the modern era the different countries of the world are developing on the basis of knowledge economy. We can say that the time is approaching where knowledge is being capitalized. So the institutions which are providing professional education are gaining importance. It has become the concern of the management of such institutions to satisfy their faculty members and understand the factors which lay an effect on the job satisfaction of the faculty members. So this study will help them understand the faculty member's perspective regarding the job satisfaction and organizational commitment and will help them formulate their policies regarding the operations of the institution. 
\section[{IV.}]{IV.} 
\section[{Methodology}]{Methodology}\par
This is a diagnostic type of research. Survey method has been adopted using questionnaires with appropriate scaling techniques. The survey was done on the faculty members of the technical and management faculty of Institutions in the Dar es Salaam region with an aim to identify the job satisfaction and organizational commitment level of the technical and management faculty. The type of the data required was primary which was collected through the questionnaires.\par
V. 
\section[{Data Collection}]{Data Collection}\par
In the present study a pilot survey was first conducted with a few sample members of each of the four institutes, to test the reliability and validity of the instrument. It was also done to incorporate their views and perception. After that, a convenience random sampling of 25 faculty members from each institute was administered the questionnaire with a total of 100 respondents. To measure their perception regarding different factors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment the most widely used Minnesota satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), with certain modifications to suit the purpose was used. The questionnaire used the Likert scale with 5 as very satisfied and 1 as very dissatisfied. 
\section[{a) Response}]{a) Response}\par
Out of 100 questionnaires, which were distributed to the selected faculty members, 60 were duly completed and returned. The returning rate was 60\%, which is consistent response with similar surveys. 
\section[{b) Analysis}]{b) Analysis}\par
The data collected was analyzed by using Simple descriptive statistics, the correlation coefficients and different statistical test viz. t test and chi-square test with respect to different aspects of satisfaction and organizational commitment. To facilitate the analysis, the instrument used was Likert scale of 1 to 5, where very satisfied scored '5' and very dissatisfied scored '1'. However, level '5' With '4' and '2' along with '1' were combined as satisfied and dissatisfied respectively, to facilitate data analysis. 
\section[{c) Results}]{c) Results}\par
The respondents were asked to rate the factors that provide them with a sense of satisfaction at the work place. (See Table \hyperref[tab_1]{1})\par
It is evident from table 1 that 50 per cent of the faculty member respondents of both the departments agreed that salary was one of the factors responsible for dissatisfaction. As depicted individually, about 63\% technical faculty members were dissatisfied where as only 37\% management faculty members were dissatisfied. Only 27\% technical faculty members were satisfied while 33\% of the management faculty was also satisfied. This result is consistent with \hyperref[b28]{Ongori and Agolla (2008)}. On the question of opportunity for promotion, about 45\% faculty members (Table \hyperref[tab_2]{2}) were dissatisfied, 30\% were satisfied and 25\% remained neutral. This depicts fewer chances for promotions in academic organizations/institutes, which may result in lower organizational commitment. The respondents were also dissatisfied with the work load i.e. keeping the faculty busy sometimes with even non academic jobs. On the other hand, the quality of supervision rendered was satisfactory whereby 62\% respondents were satisfied (Table3). On the variable of anticipation on steady employment, 53\% faculty members were satisfied. About 60\% respondents had a feeling of accomplishment from their work. The relations with coworkers gave satisfaction to almost 81 \% of the respondents, which is a very high percentage. It was found that 40\% respondents were satisfied by the flexibility to try their own methods of teaching where as 50\% were neutral on the same question. Opportunity to act in ways that do not go against ones belief also gave satisfaction to 59\% of the respondents.   
\section[{Findings}]{Findings}\par
There is significant difference in the mean age of the faculty of technical and management department related to their job satisfaction which causes significant difference in terms of the job satisfaction of technical and management faculty. There is no difference in the mean income of technical and management faculty, which causes no difference in the job satisfaction level of technical and management faculty.\par
Feeling of accomplishment from work, the work load, formal position, institute policy implementation, relationship with co-workers and opportunity for promotion equally affects the job satisfaction level of the technical and management faculty.\par
Similarly acknowledgment for a well done job, freedom to use personal judgment, relationship between employees affects the job satisfaction level of the technical and management faculty.\par
Finally we can say that there is need for the job satisfaction level of the technical and management faculty in the academic organization. 
\section[{VIII.}]{VIII.} 
\section[{Conclusions}]{Conclusions}\par
This paper demonstrates that dissatisfaction does exist in the academic organizations/institutions, which eventually results to decrease of organizational commitment. Thus, the managers of various organizations should come up with various interventions to manage the dissatisfaction among the faculty members. It is universally known that an organization having better faculty, always lead and help in building the nation by building those who build the nation. Other than the traditional method of counseling employees some other techniques should also be adopted. However, a relevant fact is that generally faculty is satisfied with the jobs. The most motivating factor is work itself 'where as working conditions are the least motivating factors. This fact has been supported by Shanthi Srinivasa (1999).\par
Finally we can say that there is need for a systematic research on practical and efficient interventions to manage the dissatisfaction among the faculty members of technical as well as management departments. The increase in job satisfaction will also increase the organizational commitment.\par
Although in the present research, the researchers have tried to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, yet there are various limitations. The first limitation is that the sample size was not large enough to generalize the results to other similar organizations. Secondly the researchers have used the quantitative methods which have their own limitations. Thus there is need to conduct further research which consists of a sample that gives a holistic view on the different factors affecting the job satisfaction and organizational commitment.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
III.\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_0}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.31815642458100557\textwidth}P{0.36089385474860336\textwidth}P{0.05223463687150837\textwidth}P{0.0664804469273743\textwidth}P{0.05223463687150837\textwidth}}
Department of the\tabcellsep \multicolumn{4}{l}{Perception of Balance of Work performed to Salary Received}\\
Respondent\tabcellsep Dissatisfied\tabcellsep Neutral\tabcellsep Satisfied\tabcellsep Total\\
Technical Faculty\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep 30\\
Management Faculty\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 9\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 30\\
Total\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep 12\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 60\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.3900684931506849\textwidth}P{0.10479452054794519\textwidth}P{0.20958904109589038\textwidth}P{0.08150684931506849\textwidth}P{0.06404109589041096\textwidth}}
Department of the\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Opportunity for Promotion}\tabcellsep \\
Respondent\tabcellsep Dissatisfied\tabcellsep Neutral\tabcellsep Satisfied\tabcellsep Total\\
Technical Faculty\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 7\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep 30\\
Management Faculty\tabcellsep 12\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 30\\
Total\tabcellsep 27\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 60\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{3} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.3746710526315789\textwidth}P{0.0894736842105263\textwidth}P{0.24046052631578946\textwidth}P{0.08388157894736842\textwidth}P{0.061513157894736846\textwidth}}
Department of the\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Technical quality of supervision}\tabcellsep \\
Respondent\tabcellsep Dissatisfied\tabcellsep Neutral\tabcellsep Satisfied\tabcellsep Total\\
Technical Faculty\tabcellsep 7\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 30\\
Management Faculty\tabcellsep 6\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 22\tabcellsep 30\\
Total\tabcellsep 13\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 37\tabcellsep 60\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_3}Table 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.37478386167146976\textwidth}P{0.026945244956772335\textwidth}P{0.026945244956772335\textwidth}P{0.026945244956772335\textwidth}P{0.0685878962536023\textwidth}P{0.017146974063400575\textwidth}P{0.009798270893371756\textwidth}P{0.03674351585014409\textwidth}P{0.2621037463976945\textwidth}}
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Likelihood Ratio}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep .381\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep \tabcellsep .944\tabcellsep \\
2013\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 2013\\
Y ear\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Y ear\\
26\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Volume XIII Issue VIII Version I\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Volume XIII Issue VIII Version I\\
( )\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep ( ) A\\
Global Journal of Management and Business Research\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Global Journal of Management and Business Research\\
Gender\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Pearson Correlation\tabcellsep -.208\tabcellsep -.128\tabcellsep -.221\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{-.351(**) -.320(*)}\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep -.252\tabcellsep -.052\\
Sig. (2-tailed)\tabcellsep .111\tabcellsep .328\tabcellsep .089\tabcellsep .005\tabcellsep .013\tabcellsep .\tabcellsep .052\tabcellsep .696\\
N\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 60\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.2931034482758621\textwidth}P{0.17586206896551723\textwidth}P{0.04396551724137931\textwidth}P{0.14655172413793105\textwidth}P{0.05862068965517241\textwidth}P{0.13189655172413794\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Value\tabcellsep df\tabcellsep Asymp.\tabcellsep Sig.\tabcellsep (2-sided)\\
Pearson Chi Square -\tabcellsep .380(a)\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{.944}\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}Table 4 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 		 		\backmatter  			 \par
Linear-by-Linear Association .  {\ref 236} 1 .627 N of Valid Cases 59 a 4 cells (50.0\%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.97.\par
On the question of relationship between employees and supervisors, 80\% of the faculty members were satisfied. Which means that the supervisors treat their employees fairly well? This result is consistent with  {\ref Ongori and Agofla (2008)}, but it is inconsistent with  {\ref Stevenson and Harper (2006)}.\par
The correlation analysis for the job satisfaction on different aspects shows that there is a high 0.77 correlation between the tenure and income. It means that as the income increases the tenure also increases at a higher rate. The correlation between age and job satisfaction was also found to be positively high. This result is consistent with the results obtained by Rhodes  {\ref (1983)}. Again a high correlation of 0.79 exists in age and income. In a study titled "Is Job Satisfaction U Shaped In Age?" it was found that many older people move into jobs, which have more desirable characteristics, as a result of which they are expected to be more satisfied.\par
There is evidence that older employees have specific work values which bring more attractive characteristics that are less desirable to younger people. Younger people may have high expectations, which, being modified by experience of jobs which do not meet their standards, are diminished in later years. Possible explanation of the greater satisfaction of older employees is in terms of non job variations. Clark A. and Oswald A. (l 996).\par
Institutes /organizations policy implication and opportunity for promotion were also found to be positively correlated. On the other hand a negative correlation of O.22 was also observed in income and gender. The gender and tenure also showed a negative correlation. Several researchers have also examined the relationship between job satisfaction and gender. However, the results of many studies have been contradictory, Mason (1995).  
\subsection[{VI. Observations}]{VI. Observations}			 			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
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\end{document}
